On This Day in History.........

0357 Emperor Constantius II visits Rome
0585 War between Lydia & Media ended by solar eclipse
1202 King Philip II throws out John without Country, from France
1253 Utrecht destroyed by fire
1376 English parliament demands supervision on royal outlay
1503 Battle at Cerignalo Spanish army under G Córdoba beats France
1521 Treaty of Worms Emperor Charles names his brother Ferdinand Arch duke of Netherlands-Austria
1550 Powers of Dutch inquisition extends
1635 Virginia Governor John Harvey accused of treason & removed from office
1655 English Admiral Blake beats Tunen pirate fleet
1686 1st volume of Isaac Newton's "Principia" published
1770 Captain James Cook in Endeavor lands at Botany Bay in Australia
1788 Maryland becomes the 7th state to ratify the constitution
1789 Fletcher Christian leads Mutiny on HMS Bounty & Captain William Bligh
1796 Cease fire of Cherasco
1804 31 English ship sail Suriname river demand transition colony
1818 Monroe proclaims naval disarmament on Great Lakes & Lake Champlain
1829 Dutch parliament accepts new press laws
1847 George B Vashon becomes 1st black to enter New York State Bar
1848 Free last slaves in French colonies
1855 1st veterinary college in US incorporated in Boston
1865 Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera "L'Africaine", premieres in Paris France
1892 1st performance of Antonin Dvorák's overture "Carneval"
1901 1st soccer game between Belgium (8) & Netherlands (0)
1901 Cleveland's Bock Baker gives up a record 23 singles as Chicago White Sox beat Blues (Cleveland Blues!) 13-1
1910 1st night air flight (Claude Grahame-White, England)
1914 181 die in coal mine collapse at Eccles WV
1914 W H Carrier patents air conditioner
1919 1st jump with Army Air Corp (rip-cord type) parachute (Les Irvin)
1920 Azerbaijan SSR joins the USSR (1st time)
1922 WOI (Ames IA) country's 1st licensed educational radio station
1923 Wembley Stadium opens-Bolton Wanderers vs West Ham United (FA Cup)
1924 119 die in Benwood WV coal mine disaster
1925 Kurd rebels surrender to Turkish army
1925 Netherlands & Great Britain return to gold standard
1930 1st night organized baseball game (Independence KS)
1931 Program for woman athletes approved for 1932 Olympics track & field
1932 Yellow fever vaccine for humans announced
1932 1st broadcast of "One Man's Family" on NBC-radio
1934 Tigers' Goose Goslin grounds into 4 straight double plays
1934 FDR signs Home Owners Loan Act
1934 Soccer team Blue White '34 forms
1934 Spanish government of Samper forms
1935 Moscow underground opens (81 km long)
1937 1st animated cartoon electric sign displayed (New York NY)
1937 1st commercial flight across the Pacific, Pan Am
1938 King Zog of Albania marries Countess Geraldine of Hungary
1939 Hitler claims German-Polish non-attack treaty still in effect
1940 Glenn Miller records "Pennsylvania 6-5000"
1940 Rudolf Hess becomes commandant of concentration camp Auschwitz
1941 Last British troops in Greece surrenders
1942 "WWII" titled so, as result of Gallup Poll
1942 Nightly "dim-out" begins along the East Coast
1943 1st performance of Marc Blitzstein's "Freedom Morning"
1943 German-Italian counter offensive in North-Africa
1943 US 34th Division occupies Djebel el Hara North Tunisia
1944 Exercise "Tiger" ends with 750 US soldiers dead in D-Day rehearsal after their convoy ships were attacked by German torpedo boats
1944 Stalin meets Polish/US priest S Orlemanski
1945 British commands attack Elbe & occupies Lauenburg
1945 US 5th army reaches Swiss border
1947 Thor Heyerdahl & "Kon-Tiki" sail from Peru to Polynesia
1949 Brooklyn's Commish Chandler suspends Durocher but he is absolved on May 3 New York fan charges Leo Durocher with assault after Giants lose 15-2 to
1952 WWII Pacific peace treaty takes effect
1952 Patty Berg wins LPGA Richmond Golf Open
1952 St Louis Browns lend 2 black minor leaguers to Hankyu Braves of Japan
1955 WBIQ TV channel 10 in Birmingham AL (PBS) begins broadcasting
1956 Last French troop leave Vietnam
1956 Reds Frank Robinson hits his 1st of 586 homeruns
1957 Patty Berg wins LPGA Western Golf Open
1957 WSOC TV channel 9 in Charlotte NC (ABC) begins broadcasting
1958 Vanguard TV-5 launched for Earth orbit (failed)
1958 Vice President Richard Nixon begins goodwill tour of Latin America
1958 Great Britain performs atmospheric nuclear test at Christmas Island
1959 KLOE TV channel 10 in Goodland KS (CBS) begins broadcasting
1959 KPLR TV channel 11 in Saint Louis MO (IND) begins broadcasting
1960 "Christine" opens at 46th St Theater NYC for 12 performances
1960 WIPM TV channel 3 in Mayaguez Puerto Rico (PBS) begins broadcasting
1961 Lieutenant Colonel Georgi Mossolov takes E-66A to 34,714 meter altitude
1961 Warren Spahn pitches 2nd no hitter at 41 beats San Francisco Giants, 1-0
1963 17th Tony Awards Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? & A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum win
1963 Marilynn Smith wins LPGA Titleholders Golf Championship
1964 Japan joins OECO
1965 Barbra Streisand stars on "My Name is Barbra" special on CBS
1965 US marines invade Dominican Republic, stay until October 1966
1965 Lindsey Nelson broadcasts game at Astrodome from a hanging gondola
1965 Richard Helms replaces Marshall S Carter as deputy director of CIA
1965 William F Raborn Jr replaces John A McCone as 7th head of CIA
1966 20th NBA Championship Boston Celtics beat Los Angeles Lakers, 4 games to 3
1966 38th Academy Awards - "Sound of Music", Julie Christie & L Marvin win
1966 Cleveland ties record with 10th straight win since Opening Day
1966 OCAM, Common Afro-Mauritian Organization forms
1967 Expo 67 opens in Montréal Canada
1967 Muhammad Ali refuses induction into army & stripped of boxing title
1968 11 year-old Mary Bell strangles 4 year-old Martin Brown
1968 Carol Mann wins LPGA Raleigh Ladies' Golf Invitational
1968 "Hair" opens at Biltmore Theater NYC for 1750 performances
1969 Charles de Gaulle resigns as President of France
1969 King Crimson with Greg Lake & Ian McDonald debuts
1971 Samuel Lee Gravely Jr becomes 1st black Admiral in US Navy
1971 Dutch social Democratic party/D'66/DS'70 win parliamentary election
1972 The courts awarded the Kentucky Derby prize money to 2nd place winner because the winner was given drugs before the race
1974 Jane Blalock wins LPGA Birmingham Golf Classic
1975 John Lennon appears on "Tonight" & Ringo on "Smothers Brothers"
1975 Last Americans evacuated from Saigon
1975 South-Vietnam General Duong Van Minh sworn in as president till April 30
1977 Christopher Boyce convicted for selling US secrets to the Russians
1977 Andreas Baader & members of Baader-Meinhoff jailed for life after a trial lasting nearly 2 years in Stuttgart Germany
1980 Cyrus Vance, Carter's Secretary of State, resigns
1980 Reunion Arena in Dallas opens
1983 Boston Bruins 4-New York Islanders 1-Wales Conference Championship-Series tied 1-1
1983 NASA launches Goes-F
1983 Argentine government declares all 15-30,000 missing persons dead
1984 "La Tragedie de Carmen" closes at Beaumont Theater NYC after 187 performances
1985 Fernando Valenzuela sets record of 41 scoreless innings to start season
1985 Philadelphia Flyers New York Islanders 1-Patrick Division Finals-Flyers win series 4-1
1985 Alice Miller wins LPGA S&H Golf Classic
1985 Billy Martin named New York Yankee manager for 4th time
1986 Chernobyl, USSR site of world's worst nuclear power plant disaster
1987 NBA announces expansion to Charlotte NC & Miami FL in 1988 & Minneapolis MN & Orlando FL in 1989
1988 Aloha Airlines Boeing 737 roof tears off in flight; kills stewardess
1988 Baltimore Orioles lose American League record 21 games in a row
1988 New Jersey Devils set all time playoff mark for penalty minutes
1988 "Chess" opens at Imperial Theater NYC for 68 performances
1989 Argentina, hit by rocketing inflation, runs out of money
1989 Iran protests sale of "Satanic Verses" by Salman Rushdie
1990 Boston Celtics score most points in a playoff, beat New York Knicks 157-128
1990 "Chorus Line" closes at Shubert Theater NYC after 6,137 performances (15 years)
1990 Firestone World Bowling Tournament of Champions won by Dave Ferraro
1990 Guns & Roses' Axl Rose marries Erin Everly (annulled same year)
1990 Last issue of Dutch communist daily De Waarheid (The Truth)
1991 Space Shuttle STS 39 (Discovery 12) is launched
1991 "Gypsy" opens at Marquis Theater NYC for 105 performances
1991 "Taking Steps" closes at Circle in Square Theater NYC after 78 performances
1992 Italian President Francesco Cossiga formally resigns
1992 Milwaukee Brewers beat Toronto Blue Jays 22-2 with American League record 31 hits in 9 innings
1993 "Tango Passion" opens at Longacre Theater NYC for 5 performances
1993 Carlo Ciampi forms Italian government with ex-communists
1993 New York Islanders beat Washington Capitals 4 to 1 in playoffs, Capitals Dale Hunter attacks Pierre Turgeon after scoring, in hockey's worst cheap shot
1993 Zambian plane crashes at Libreville Gabon, 30 soccer players die
1994 1st multi-racial election in South Africa ends [3 days]
1994 Aldrich Ames, former CIA officer & wife Rosario plead guilty to spying
1994 Freddy Thielemans sworn in as mayor of Brussels Belgium
1994 Lisa Marie Presley separates from Danny Keough
1995 Gas explosion in South Korean metro, 103 die
1995 Sri Lankaan BAE748 crashes at Palaly, 52 die
1996 "Big", opens at Shubert Theater NYC for 193 performances
1996 Martin Bryant shoots & kills 35 in Port Arthur Tasmania
1996 Meg Mallon wins LPGA Sara Lee Golf Classic
1997 "Jekyll & Hyde" opens at Plymouth Theater NYC
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Missing In Action.....

1965 STORZ RONALD EDWARD SOUTH OZONE PARK NY 03/02/74 REMAINS RETURNED
1967 CARAS FRANKLIN ANGEL SPANISH FORK UT REMAINS RETURNED 11/25/87
1968 BORS JOSEPH C. BINGHAMTON NY
1968 COOK WILLIAM R. REDWOOD FALLS MN
1968 FINLAY JOHN S. ARLINGTON VA 03/14/73 RELEASED BY DRV ALIVE AND WELL 98
1968 RUMBLE WESLEY L. OROVILLE CA 08/05/69 RELEASED
1968 SAAVEDRA ROBERT NOGALES AZ
1969 REARDON RICHARD J. HUNTINGTON NY 02/04/70 CREW REMAINS RECOVERED
1970 SNIDER HUGHIE F. NEW CUMBERLAND WV

Births which occurred on April 28:

1442 Edward IV king of England (1461-70, 1471-83)
1592 George Villiers 1st duke of Buckingham/English Admiral
1698 Karel Jozef ruler of Batthyányi
1715 Franz Sparry composer
1748 Lorenz Justinian Ott composer
1750 Paul Ignaz Kurzinger composer
1753 Franz K Achard German physicist
1757 Claus Nielsen Schali composer
1758 James Monroe Westmoreland VA, 5th US President (1817-25, Democratic Republican)
1770 Nikita P Panin Russian diplomat/minister of Foreign affairs
1774 Francis Baily describer of "Baily's Beads" during solar eclipse
1795 Charles Sturt England, explorered Australia
1809 Conradus Leemans Dutch archaeologist
1810 Daniel Ullmann Brevet Major General (Union volunteers), died in 1892
1812 Daniel Henry Rucker Brevet Major General (Union Army), died in 1910
1815 Andrew Jackson Smith Major General (Union volunteers), died in 1897
1825 James Winning McMillan Brevet Major General (Union volunteers)
1826 Alexander Stadtfeld composer
1838 Tobias M Carel Asser Holland, advocate of world law (Nobel Peace Prize 1911)
1842 Louis of Orleans Earl of Brazil (1870-89)
1846 Johann E Backlund Swedish astronomer (planets/asteroids)
1848 Ludvig Schytte composer
1864 William F A Ellison Irish clergyman/director (Armagh Observatory)
1868 Émile Bernard writer
1870 Hermann Suter composer
1873 Harold Bauer English/US pianist (Beethoven-Association)
1874 Karl Kraus writer
1874 Sidney Toler Warrensburg MO, actor (Madame X, Meeting at Midnight)
1876 Frank Cavanagh one of football's coaching greats
1878 Lionel [Herbert Blythe] Barrymore Philadelphia PA, actor (A Free Soul, David Cooperfield, Dr Kildare)
1879 Edgar Tytgat Flemish painter/etcher
1879 Franz Arnold writer
1882 Alberto Pirelli Italian industrialist
1886 Erich Salomon German photographer
1888 Henry Crerar Canadian General (WWI/Italy/Netherlands)
1889 António de Oliveira Salazar premier/dictator Portugal (1932-68)
1889 Bryant Washburn Chicago IL, actor (Exposure, Millionaire Kid, Nabonga)
1889 Karel Doorman Dutch Rear Admiral
1892 Joseph Dunninger New York NY, mentalist (Amazing Dunninger)
1892 Georges Antoine composer
1892 John Jacob Niles composer
19-- Daniel Zippi Los Angeles CA, actor (King's Crossing)
1900 Maurice Thorez coal miner, Secretary-General of French Communist Party
1900 Bruno Apitz writer
1900 Jan Hendrik Oort Dutch astronomer (hypothesized "Oort Cloud")
1901 Corry Vonk [Cornelia D] wife of Wim Kan (ABC-cabaret)
1906 Kurt Gödel Austria, mathematician (Incompleteness Theorem)
1906 Bartholomeus J "Bart" Bok Dutch/US astronomer (Milky Way)
1906 Pierre [Louis] Boileau Paris France, novelist (Vertigo)
1907 Marion Coulon Belgian theoriest (Jeunesse à la dérive)
1908 Arnoud Breeveld Suriname bishop
1908 Jack Fingleton cricketer (Australian opener of 30's)
1908 Michael T Fitzmaurice Chicago IL, actor (Reported Missing, 14 Hours)
1911 Frans Vroons actor/tenor/director (Netherlands Opera)
1912 Odette Hallowes British classified agent in France (WWII)
1914 Skuli Halldorsson composer
1917 Robert Anderson New York NY, writer (Tea & Sympathy, Never Sang for My Father)
1917 Robert Cornthwaite St Helen OR, actor (Thing, War of the Worlds)
1917 Joop Waasdorp Dutch writer (Naked Life)
1920 Nan Merriman US/Netherlands singer (Arturo Toscanini NBC Orchestra)
1921 Rowland Evans White Marsh PA, news reporter (CNN-Evans & Novak)
1922 Guillaume Jorissen Flemish politician (Volksunie)
1922 Iser J Koepermann Russian/US world checkers champion (1958-68, 75-76)
1922 William S Broomfield (Representative-Republican-MI, 1956- )
1923 Adele Mara Dearborn MI, actress/singer (Cool Million, Wheels)
1923 Wolfgang Steffen composer
1924 Kenneth David Kaunda founder/President (Zambia, 1964-91)
1925 Richard C Sarafian New York NY, director/actor (Foley Square)
1926 Harper Lee author (To Kill a Mockingbird)
1927 Garfield Weston English industrial/billionaire (Twinings Tea)
1928 Yves Klein French sculptor/painter
1929 Carolyn Jones Amarillo TX, actress (Morticia-Addams Family)
1930 James Baker 3 Houston TX, Secretary of Treasury (1985-88), Secretary of State (1989-92)
1930 Christopher John Magenis Headington composer
1932 Marek Kopelent composer
1933 Karl Heinz Wahren composer
1933 Oliver "Bops Junior" Jackson drummer
1936 John Martin Tchicai composer
1937 Saddam Hussein [At-Takriti] President of Iraq (1979- )
1938 Madge Sinclair Kingston Jamaica, actress (Bell-Roots, Trapper John)
1938 Beverly F Albert architect
1941 Ann-Margret [Olsson] Valsjobya Sweden, actress (Bye Bye Birdie, Carnal Knowledge, Viva Las Vegas, Tommy)
1941 Ann-Margret Valsjobya Sweden, actress (Bye Bye Birdie, Tommy)
1942 Ghislaine Hermanez architect
1942 Mike Brearley cricketer (outstanding England captainain 1977-81)
1943 John Oliver Creighton Orange TX, Captain USN/astronaut (STS 51G, 36, 48)
1943 Fantastic Johnny C[orley] US singer (Boogaloo down Broadway)
1945 Ajit Manohar Pai cricketer (one Test India vs New Zealand 1969)
1947 Steve Khan jazz musician (Christmas Waltz)
1948 Marcia Strassman New York NY, actress (Julle Kotter-Welcome Back Kotter)
1949 Jerome "Jay" Apt Springfield MA, PhD/astronaut (STS 37, 47, 59, 79)
1950 Willie Colon Bronx NY, actor (The Last Flight)
1950 Jay Leno New Rochelle, comedian/talk show host (Tonight Show)
1952 Mary McDonnell Wilkes-Barre PA, actress (Sneakers, Independence Day)
1953 Julie Cole LPGA golfer
1955 Eddie Jobson rock violinist (Zappa, UK, Roxy Music-For Your Pleasure)
1956 Jeremy John Beadle writer/broadcaster
1956 Paul S Lockhart Amarillo TX, Major USAF/astronaut
1957 Leopold Eyharts France, cosmonaut (Soyuz TM-26, TM-28/27)
1958 Kathy Willets nymphomaniac (1991 Florida Sex Scandal)
1958 Hal Evan Sutton Shreveport LA, PGA golfer (1982 Walt Disney, PGA 1983)
1958 Nancy Lee Grahn Skokie IL, actress (Julia-Santa Barbara)
1960 Wally Langdon bassist (Bob Color)
1961 Cathy Gerring Fort Wayne IN, LPGA golfer (1990 Lady Keystone Open)
1962 Evguenni Rochtchin NHL forward (Team Belarus, Olympics-98)
1964 Barry Larkin Cincinnati OH, shortstop (Cincinnati Reds)
1964 Helen Marina Lucy Windsor England, daughter of Prince Edward
1964 Mark Hager Australian field hockey forward/captain (Olympics-4th-88, 96)
1966 Jim Poole Rochester NY, pitcher (Cleveland Indians)
1966 John Patrick Daly Sacramento CA, PGA golfer (1995 British Open)
1967 Monique Noel Salem OR, playmate (May 1989)
1967 Pete Stoyanovich NFL kicker (Miami Dolphins, Kansas City Chiefs)
1968 Andy Flower cricketer (Zimbabwe keeper & victorious Test captain)
1968 Damion Lyons CFL cornerback (British Columbia Lions)
1968 Mark Carrier NFL safety (Chicago Bears, Detroit Lions)
1969 Merlelynn Lange-Harris Toronto Ontario Canada, basketball center (Olympics-96)
1970 Jason Belser defensive back (Indianapolis Colts)
1970 Mark Harris wide receiver (San Francisco 49ers)
1970 Nicklas Lidstrom Vasteras Sweden, NHL defenseman (Team Sweden, Detroit)
1970 Richard Fromberg Australia, tennis star
1971 Chris[topher Tyler] Young Chambersburg PA, actor (Bryce Lynch-Max Headroom, Great Outdoors)
1971 Meredith McGrath Midland MI, tennis star (1996 Essen doubles)
1971 Mihai Apostal Bucharest Romania, Canadian kayaker (Olympics-96)
1971 Simbi Khali actress (Nina-Third Rock From the Sun)
1972 Jan Benda Reet Belgium, hockey forward (Team Germany 1998)
1972 Jean-Paul van Gastel soccer player (Willem II)
1972 Michelle Menzies Barrie Ontario Canada, Canadian ice pairs (1995, 96 Can champions)
1973 Earl Holmes linebacker (Pittsburgh Steelers)
1973 Marc[us] Blake Schneider Lubbock TX, rower (Olympics-bronze-1996)
1973 Melvin Hayes NFL tackle (New York Jets, Tennessee Oilers)
1973 Serge Zwikker NBA center (Houston Rockets)
1974 Sergei Stas NHL defenseman (Team Belarus, Olympics-98)
1975 James Thrash wide receiver (Washington Redskins)
1975 Martin Lewis NBA guard (Toronto Raptors)
1978 Nate Richert St Paul MN, actor (Harvey-Sabrina)
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Deaths which occurred on April 28:

1089 Dirk de Grote bishop of Verdun/Basel/archbishop of Trier, dies
1109 Hugo van Cluny 6th abbott of Cluny/saint, dies
1770 Marie AC de Camargo Spanish/Italian/Belgian dancer, dies at 60
1799 François Giroust composer, dies at 62
1804 Hans Gram composer, dies at 49
1843 William Wallace Scottish mathematician (rights of Wallace), dies
1853 Ludwig Tieck writer, dies at 79
1860 Isaac da Costa poet/writer (Réveil, Wachter!), dies at 62
1881 Robert W Ollinger US warden/last victim of Billy the Kid, dies
1887 Carl Ferdinand Pohl composer, dies at 67
1896 Heinrich von Treitschke German historian, dies
1925 Louis F J Bouwmeester actor (Shakespeare), dies
1933 Robin Irvine actor (Easy Virtue), dies at 31
1935 Alexander Campbell Mackenzie Scottish composer, dies at 87
1936 Foead I king of Egypt (1922-36), dies
1945 Benito Mussolini Fascist leader (Italy), captured, tried, & shot
1945 Claretta Petacci mistress of Mussolini, executed
1945 Hans Bloesch writer, dies
1955 Lode Cantens Flemish playwrite (Gnomes of the City), dies at 43
1960 Anton Pancake astronomer/marxist theorist, dies at 87
1965 Ferdinand Bordewijk Dutch lawyer/writer (Character), dies at 80
1966 Ralph Bunker actor (Ghost Goes West), dies of a stroke at 77
1969 Johannes Rontgen composer, dies at 70
1970 Ed Begley actor (Mr Koppel-Leave it to Larry), dies at 69
1973 Pat Henning actor (Goodyear TV Playhouse), dies at 62
1974 Paul Page actor (Girl from Havanna, Moth), dies at 70
1975 Jan A de Jonge Dutch historian, dies at 48
1976 Eugen Roth writer, dies at 81
1977 Ricardo Cortez actor/director (Bad Company, Flesh), dies at 87
1979 Feliks Roderyk Labunski composer, dies at 86
1980 Tommy Caldwell rocker (Marshall Tucker Band), dies
1980 Dee Carroll [Betty Jean Marsh] actress (Mad Bomber, Split), dies
1981 Mickey "Toy Bulldog" Walker welterweight champion (1922-26) dies at 79
1982 Bert van Dongen [Abraham J Cohen], Dutch singer/actor, dies at 66
1982 EW "Nobby" Clark England cricketer (32 wickets in 8 Tests 1929-34), dies
1983 Ron James cricketer (New South Wales's Sheffield Shield captain 1949-50), dies
1984 Glen H Taylor US Senator/vice presidential candidate (1948), dies at 80
1984 Silvia A Warner writer, dies
1987 Ben Linder development worker, murdered by Contras in Nicaragua
1989 Olaff J de Landell [JB van Sparwoude] Dutch writer, dies at 77
1990 Jean Blazer Baney entertainer, dies
1991 Floyd B McKissick US founder (CORE), dies
1991 Ken Curtis actor (Festus-Gunsmoke), dies at 74
1992 Francis Bacon Irish/British abstract painter, dies at 82
1992 Olivier Messiaen French composer (St François d'Assise), dies at 83
1993 Jim Valvano basketball coach (North Carolina State), dies of cancer at 47
1995 Andrew Salkey author editor/broadcaster, dies at 67
1995 Henry C Rogers press Agent, dies at 81
1995 Peaches Roy Davis baseball pitcher, dies at 89
1996 Giles Grangier film director, dies at 84
1996 Henry Clarke fashion photographer, dies at 75
1996 Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro politician, dies at 80
1996 William E Colby director of CIA (1973-76), dies
1997 Susan Seddon Boulet artist, dies of cancer at 45

1776 Colonel McIntosh writes to Washington

In a letter dated April 28, 1776, from Savannah, Georgia, Colonel Lachlan McIntosh informs General George Washington that he is pleased with his recruitment efforts in the colony. However, McIntosh’s news was not all good: he concluded his letter with the report that because the South had limited manufacturing capability, the price of needed goods was two or three times higher than in the North, making procurement of clothing and arms for the new recruits difficult.

McIntosh had only recently risen from the position of colonel in the Georgia militia to colonel in the Continental Army. The promotion was a reward for his successful defense of Savannah from British attack in the Battle of the Rice Boats, which had taken place in the Savannah River between Georgia and South Carolina on March 2 and 3.

Although McIntosh was born in Scotland, his family moved to Georgia in 1736, when Lachlan was 11 years old. The colony of Georgia came into existence as a military buffer zone between South Carolina rice plantations, run by African slaves while their British landlords enjoyed the Caribbean sun, and the Spanish colony of Florida. During the War of Jenkin’s Ear between British Georgians and Spanish Floridians, Lachlan’s father was taken captive in 1740. Though released, his health was never recovered, and he died shortly thereafter.

After a stint in famous British evangelist George Whitefield’s Savannah orphanage, Lachlan McIntosh set out to receive military training. He and his brother, William McIntosh, wanted to join the Jacobite Rebellion of Scots against Queen Mary and Prince William of Orange, but, as promising young men, were convinced to stay in Georgia by the colony’s founder, James Oglethorpe.

Lachlan McIntosh found plenty of other opportunities to fight the British crown beginning on January 7, 1776, when he received his commission as a colonel in the Georgia militia.
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1810 Daniel Ullmann born

Union General Daniel Ullmann is born in Wilmington, Delaware. Ullmann was best known as an advocate for black troops.

Ullman was educated at Yale University and practiced law in New York City. He was an active Whig before the party's collapse around 1850, and he ran for governor of New York on the American, or "Know-Nothing," ticket in 1854. Ullmann became a colonel in command of the 78th New York regiment when the war began. He was sent to Virginia and served in the Shenandoah Valley, where he was given command of a brigade. He was captured at the Battle of Cedar Mountain and incarcerated at Richmond's Libby Prison for a month before he was exchanged in October 1862.

Promoted to brigadier general in January 1863, Ullmann was sent to New Orleans to recruit black troops. His efforts were met by much resistance among his fellow officers. Ullmann often complained that his men were given work details and not seriously considered for military duty. He finally got his wish, and his brigade was sent to assist in the siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana, in May 1863. After Ullmann's men bravely made several unsuccessful attacks on Port Hudson, one Union officer warned, "We must not discipline them, for if we do, we will have to fight them some day ourselves."

Ullmann spent most of the war at Port Hudson after the Confederates surrendered it in July 1863. After the war, he traveled extensively, and studied literature and science. He died in Nyack, New York, in 1892.
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1915 International Congress of Women opens at The Hague

The International Congress of Women convenes on this day in 1915 at The Hague, Netherlands, with more than 1,200 delegates from 12 countries—including Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Poland, Belgium and the United States—all dedicated to the cause of peace and a resolution of the great international conflict that was World War I.

Often referred to as the Women’s Peace Congress, the meeting was the result of an invitation by a Dutch women’s suffrage organization, led by Aletta Jacobs, to women’s rights activists around the world, on the basis of the belief that a peaceful international assemblage of women would “have its moral effect upon the belligerent countries,” as Jacobs put it during her opening address to the conference on April 28, 1915.

“With mourning hearts we stand united here,” Jacobs told the assembled delegates. “We grieve for many brave young men who have lost their lives on the battlefield before attaining their full manhood; we mourn with the poor mothers bereft of their sons; with the thousands of young widows and fatherless children, and we feel that we can no longer endure in this twentieth century of civilization that government should tolerate brute force as the only solution of international disputes.” Over the course of the next three days, the congress worked out what they considered an alternative, non-violent form of conflict resolution, calling for a process of “continuous mediation” to be implemented, without armistice, until peace could be restored among the warring nations. This policy was set forward explicitly in a set of resolutions on May 1. The congress also marked the foundation of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), an organization that still exists today.

The American delegation to the congress in April 1915 included two future recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize: Jane Addams, the co-founder of Hull House, a social settlement that served as a welfare agency for needy families in Chicago, and Emily G. Balch, a sociologist who taught at Wellesley College. Another American delegate, Alice Hamilton, was a pathology professor and medical investigator who became the first female faculty member of Harvard University in 1919.

Other prominent international women who gathered at the Hague included Lida Gustava Heymann, one of 28 delegates from Germany; Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence, Emily Hobhouse and Chrystal Macmillan from Great Britain; and Rosika Schwimmer from Hungary. Notably absent from the International Women’s Congress were the French, whose government refused to allow delegates to attend the conference, although, as Balch later pointed out, “the French women have been the earliest to actually form their national organization in support of the program worked out at the congress.” Of the other belligerent nations, Russia, Serbia and Japan also failed to send any delegates to the conference. The British government, for its part, prevented most of its planned 180-member delegation from traveling to Holland by suspending regular commercial ferry service between the British port of Folkestone and the Dutch port of Flushing.
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1945 Benito Mussolini is captured and executed by Italian partisans

On this day in 1945, "Il Duce," Benito Mussolini, and his mistress, Clara Petacci, are shot by Italian partisans who had captured the couple as they attempted to flee to Switzerland.

The 61-year-old deposed former dictator of Italy was established by his German allies as the figurehead of a puppet government in northern Italy during the German occupation toward the close of the war. As the Allies fought their way up the Italian peninsula, defeat of the Axis powers all but certain, Mussolini considered his options. Not wanting to fall into the hands of either the British or the Americans, and knowing that the communist partisans, who had been fighting the remnants of roving Italian fascist soldiers and thugs in the north, would try him as a war criminal, he settled on escape to a neutral country.

He and his mistress made it to the Swiss border, only to discover that the guards had crossed over to the partisan side. Knowing they would not let him pass, he disguised himself in a Luftwaffe coat and helmet, hoping to slip into Austria with some German soldiers. His subterfuge proved incompetent, and he and Petacci were discovered by partisans and shot, their bodies then transported by truck to Milan, where they were hung upside down and displayed publicly for revilement by the masses.
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1970 Nixon approves Cambodian incursion

President Richard Nixon gives his formal authorization to commit U.S. combat troops, in cooperation with South Vietnamese units, against communist troop sanctuaries in Cambodia.

Secretary of State William Rogers and Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird, who had continually argued for a downsizing of the U.S. effort in Vietnam, were excluded from the decision to use U.S. troops in Cambodia. Gen. Earle Wheeler, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, cabled Gen. Creighton Abrams, senior U.S. commander in Saigon, informing him of the decision that a "higher authority has authorized certain military actions to protect U.S. forces operating in South Vietnam." Nixon believed that the operation was necessary as a pre-emptive strike to forestall North Vietnamese attacks from Cambodia into South Vietnam as the U.S. forces withdrew and the South Vietnamese assumed more responsibility for the fighting. Nevertheless, three National Security Council staff members and key aides to presidential assistant Henry Kissinger resigned in protest over what amounted to an invasion of Cambodia.

When Nixon publicly announced the Cambodian incursion on April 30, it set off a wave of antiwar demonstrations. A protest at Kent State University resulted in the killing of four students by Army National Guard troops. Another student rally at Jackson State College in Mississippi resulted in the death of two students and 12 wounded when police opened fire on a women's dormitory. The incursion angered many in Congress, who felt that Nixon was illegally widening the war; this resulted in a series of congressional resolutions and legislative initiatives that would severely limit the executive power of the president.
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1972 North Vietnamese press South Vietnamese at Hue and Kontum

The North Vietnamese offensive continues as Fire Base Bastogne, 20 miles west of Hue, falls to the communists. Fire Base Birmingham, 4 miles to the east, was also under heavy attack. As fighting intensified all across the northern province of South Vietnam, much of Hue's civilian population tried to escape south to Da Nang. Farther south in the Central Highlands, 20,000 North Vietnamese troops converged on Kontum, encircling it and cutting it off. Only 65 miles north of Saigon, An Loc lay under siege and continued to take a pummeling from North Vietnamese artillery, rockets, and ground attacks. To the American command in Saigon, it appeared that South Vietnam was on the verge of total defeat by the North Vietnamese, but the South Vietnamese were able to hold out.